Bombieri, GiuliaPenteriani, VincenzoAlmasieh, KamranAmbarlı, HüseyinAshrafzadeh, Mohammad RezaDas, Chandan SurabhiDharaiya, Nishith2023-07-262023-07-2620231544-9173https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001946https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12684/12386AU Large: Pleaseconfirmthatallheadinglevelsarerepresentedcorrectly carnivores have long fascinated human societies and:have profound influences on ecosystems. However, their conservation represents one of the greatest challenges of our time, particularly where attacks on humans occur. Where human recreational and/or livelihood activities overlap with large carnivore ranges, conflicts can become particularly serious. Two different scenarios are responsible for such overlap: In some regions of the world, increasing human populations lead to extended encroachment into large carnivore ranges, which are subject to increasing contraction, fragmentation, and degradation. In: Anabbreviationlisthasbeencompiledforthoseusedthroughoutthetext other regions, human and large carnivore populations :Pleaseverifythatallentriesarecorrect are expanding, thus exacerbating : conflicts, especially in those areas where these species were extirpated and are now returning. We thus face the problem of learning how to live with species that can pose serious threats to humans. We collected a total of 5,440 large carnivore (Felidae, Canidae, and Ursi dae; 12 species) attacks worldwide between 1950 and 2019. The number of reported attacks increased over time, especially in lower-income countries. Most attacks (68%) resulted in human injuries, whereas 32% were fatal. Although attack scenarios varied greatly within and among species, as well as in different areas of the world, factors triggering large carnivore attacks on humans largely depend on the socioeconomic context, with people being at risk mainly during recreational activities in high-income countries and during livelihood activities in low-income countries. The specific combination of local socioeconomic and ecological factors is thus a risky mix triggering large carnivore attacks on humans, whose circumstances and frequencies cannot only be ascribed to the animal species. This also implies that effective measures to reduce large carnivore attacks must also consider the diverse local ecological and social contexts. Copyright: This is an open access article, free of all copyright, and may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication.en10.1371/journal.pbio.3001946info:eu-repo/semantics/openAccessadultanimal behaviorArticlebearCanidaecarnivorechildfatalityFelidaehigh income countryhumaninjurylow income countrynonhumanrecreationrisk factorsocioeconomicsanimalbearCanidaeCarnivoraecosystemenvironmental protectionproceduresAnimalsCanidaeCarnivoraConservation of Natural ResourcesEcosystemHumansUrsidaeArticle211367198732-s2.0-85147234295WOS:000960829600001Q1Q1